By. Pia Mehdwan, BSc Anthropology Graduate
In this blog post, recent UCL Anthropology graduate Pia Mehdwan showcases her dissertation research and key findings.
Parenthood has increasingly focused on fewer children, with an emphasis on quality investment in each. This shift, driven by societal, economic, and biological factors, reflects an evolving parenting strategy in the UK that I explore through an evolutionary and anthropological lens in my dissertation.
Evolutionary Perspectives on Parenting: Quality vs. Quantity
From an evolutionary standpoint, human behaviour is shaped by trade-offs between survival and reproduction. Life history theory, a key framework in evolutionary biology, posits that organisms must allocate fine resources - such as energy- between growth, reproduction, and self-maintenance (Cody, 1966). Humans, like other organisms, face a fundamental trade-off between the number of offspring and the resources they can invest in each child. This is known as the quality-quantity trade-off (Kaplan and Lancaster, 2003).
So how do these evolutionary concepts play out in modern parenting practices? I examined the long-term parental expectations through a qualitative survey of 52 UK adults. My findings highlight that parents favour intensive investment in fewer children, demonstrating the core of the quality-quantity trade-off in modern UK parenting.
United Kingdom: The Second Demographic Transition & The Rise of ‘Intensive Parenting’
The second demographic transition, which has characterised much of Western Europe, including the UK, over the last century, provides an important context for understanding this evolution in parenting. This transition refers to the sharp decline in fertility rates, alongside improved child survival rates and lower mortality.
Alongside this, parenting practices have become increasingly intensive, especially in response to broader socioeconomic shifts. My research draws from sociologist Sharon Hays’ (1996) model of ‘intensive mothering,’ which characterises modern parenting as highly demanding and focused on nurturing children to ensure future success. While this model initially applied to middle-class mothers, it has expanded to include all socioeconomic groups and both genders.
The Findings
My findings indicate that parents in the UK increasingly prioritise fewer children, dedicating significant resources to each child’s education, career success, and emotional well-being. This approach reflects parents’ efforts to ensure their children achieve financial independence and stable careers, markers of success in contemporary society. One respondent envisioned success as an independent adult who “can take care of themselves financially,” while another hoped their child would “be happy, not struggling at school…[and able to] enjoy a range of meaningful activities.” These responses reveal a parental investment model deeply influenced by societal expectations, where success is defined through economic self-sufficiency, emotional wellbeing, and educational attainment.
A recurring theme in my research is ‘status safeguarding’—the idea that parents, especially within competitive capitalist societies, invest heavily in their children’s development to secure their future social and economic standing (Milkie and Warner, 2014). “Working hard in our current society is crucial for survival, which I suppose is shaped by capitalism,” one participant remarked, capturing the sense of urgency many parents feel to prepare their children for a challenging world. This approach aligns with sociologist Sharon Hays’ (1996) concept of ‘intensive mothering,’ in which parents dedicate substantial effort to equip their children to thrive in an increasingly competitive landscape. In fact, 77% of participants felt that societal norms influenced their expectations, highlighting how external pressures shape ambitions for children’s futures.
This tension is reflected in the concept of ‘cruel optimism,’ as described by Cappellini et al. (2019), which underscores the fragility of these aspirations. Parents devote time, money, and emotional labour in the hope of guaranteeing success, but they are often aware that societal limitations may undermine their efforts. One participant noted, “I know the game field isn’t levelled, and you need to measure success accordingly,” highlighting the nuanced pressures parents face within a competitive social structure.
Parenting as an Evolving Strategy
In conclusion, the trends observed reflect a broader evolution in parenting strategies, emphasising educational and financial milestones over traditional measures of reproductive success. It will be crucial to monitor how these changing expectations influence not only individual families but also broader demographic trends. By applying evolutionary anthropology to parenting practices, perhaps we can gain deeper insights into how humans adapt their behaviours to ever-changing social and environmental conditions.
Interested in studying Evolutionary Anthropology? At UCL, you can study Evolutionary Anthropology through BSc Anthropology and MSc Human Evolution and Behaviour.
References
CAPPELLINI, B., HARMAN, V., MARILLI, A. & PARSONS, E. 2019. Intensive mothering in hard times: Foucauldian ethical self-formation and cruel optimism. Journal of Consumer Culture, 19, 469-492.
CODY, M. 1966. A General Theory of Clutch Size. Evolution, 20. HAYS, S. 1996. The cultural contradictions of motherhood, New Haven, Yale University Press.
KAPLAN, H. S. & LANCASTER, J. B. 2003. An Evolutionary and Ecological Analysis of Human Fertility, Mating Patterns, and Parental Investment. In: WACHTER KW, B. R. (ed.) Offspring: Human Fertility Behavior in Biodemographic Perspective. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US).
MILKIE, M. A. & WARNER, C. H. 2014. Status Safeguarding Mothersʹ Work to Secure Childrenʹs Place in the Social Hierarchy. In: ENNIS, L. R. (ed.) Intensive Mothering. Demeter Press.
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